In the latter half of the first millennium BCE, Ashurbanipal (circa 668 to 627 BCE) ascended the throne of Assyria, cementing his name as one of the most prominent, and at the same time, last great rulers of this empire. He was known not only as a ruthless and experienced military commander but also for his interest in culture and knowledge. During his reign, the Assyrian Empire reached its peak of power and expanse, dominating vast territories including Babylon, parts of Media, and even Egypt.
One of Ashurbanipal's most significant achievements was the creation of a vast and unparalleled library in Nineveh, the capital of Assyria. This library contained thousands of clay tablets, encompassing various texts including literature, science, history, laws, and even religious and administrative inscriptions. He dispatched scribes to collect and transcribe texts from across Mesopotamia, thereby preserving a treasure trove of knowledge and culture of that era for future generations. Today, this collection is recognized as one of the most valuable ancient libraries in the world, providing countless insights into ancient civilizations, including the Epic of Gilgamesh.
Alongside its cultural aspect, Ashurbanipal's policies were marked by boundless suppression and violence. He was notorious for the brutal torture of captives and the destruction of conquered cities, forcing his enemies into obedience through massacre and assault on subjugated regions. These behaviors, while seemingly consolidating Assyrian power, in reality generated deep dissatisfaction and resentment among the conquered nations, sowing the seeds of future rebellions.
During Ashurbanipal's reign, Assyria's territory reached its greatest extent, encompassing Babylon, Syria, parts of the Iranian plateau, and even Egypt. However, maintaining this vast empire presented numerous challenges. Egypt, following a widespread revolt led by Pharaoh Psamtik I (after the Assyrian defeat by the Cimmerians in the battle of 658 BCE), broke free from Assyrian rule, signaling the empire's hidden weakness. Ashurbanipal was kind to his own people and the Assyrian heartland but treated conquered peoples with extreme cruelty.
Examples of his cruelty include forcing a defeated Elamite king to wear a chain in the shape of a dog's yoke on his jaw and live in a dog's kennel during his captivity. One of his greatest military successes was the destruction of Susa and the complete plundering of Elam. Elam, a long-standing enemy that had challenged Assyria for years, was utterly devastated during this period, though Elamites still existed in the mountains and alongside the people of Parsa in the kingdom of Anshan. He also succeeded in subjugating Urartu, another Assyrian rival to the north, and expanded his influence in those regions.
However, this excessive use of power in conquests, especially in the complete conquest and destruction of Elam and Susa, led to the weakening of the Assyrians. Continuous and prolonged wars severely depleted the empire's human and economic resources, exhausting and weakening the Assyrian army. These costly victories, instead of consolidating power, actually weakened the empire's foundations and made it vulnerable to future threats.
Nevertheless, towards the end of his reign, Ashurbanipal himself was aware of the empire's weakness and exhaustion. In some recovered clay tablets, he complains of his old age and infirmity, expressing despair that no one obeys his commands anymore. This indicates the beginning of the empire's internal decline, which even its most powerful king could not prevent. The lack of strong leadership and poor economic and social conditions after his death in 627 BCE exacerbated discontent and set the stage for alliances against Assyria.
After Ashurbanipal's death, the empire rapidly declined. Internal disputes over succession, widespread revolts in vassal territories, and economic weakness disintegrated Assyria from within. Vassal states declared independence, and chaos engulfed the entire empire. Ultimately, the powerful cooperation of the Medes and Babylon against Assyria brought about the end of this brutal empire. This alliance not only eliminated Assyrian dominance but also paved the way for the rise of the Medes and Babylon in the Middle East, ushering in a new era in ancient history.